Mary Whiton Calkins Essays - American Psychologists,

Mary Whiton Calkins INTRODUCTION Mary Whiton Calkins, is best known for two things: becoming the first woman president of The American Psychological Association and being denied her doctorate from Harvard. However, these two aspects only make up a small portion of what she accomplished in her life. Her entire life was dedicated to her work, especially the development of her Psychology of selves. She founded an early psychology laboratory and invented the paired-associate technique. She passionately dove into the new field of Psychology but also was highly active in the field of Philosophy. She was not deterred by being a woman and used her struggles to gain a voice to speak out against women's oppression. (5) EARLY LIFE Mary Whiton Calkins was born on March 30, 1863 in Buffalo, New York. Her father was Wolcott Calkins and a Presbyterian minister. She was from a close knit family, especially to her mother, and the eldest of five children. In 1880, when she was seventeen, she moved to Newton, Massachusetts where her family built a home that she lived in the rest of her life. Her father, knowing the education that women received, decided to design and supervise Mary's education. This enabled her to enter Smith College in 1882 with advanced standing as a sophomore. However, in 1893, an experience that permanently influenced her thinking and character, was the death of her sister, Maude. The following academic year she stayed home and took private lessons. She reentered Smith College in the fall of 1884 as a senior and graduated with a concentration in classics and philosophy (7). In 1886 her family went to Europe for sixteen months. This is where she broadened her knowledge of the classics. Upon returning to Massachusetts her father arranged an interview for Mary with the President of Wellesley College, a liberal arts college for women that was a few miles from their home. She was offered a position there as a tutor in Greek and began teaching in the fall of 1887. Mary remained in the Greek Department for three years. However, a professor in the Department of Philosophy noticed her talent of teaching. He discussed with Mary the position needed to teach the new field of Psychology, which was still a sub-discipline of Philosophy. Due to the scarcity of women in that area, it made it realistic to see her potential and offer her the position. EDUCATIONAL SETBACKS The only requirement that the professor had, was that Calkins study for one year in a Psychology program. However, she faced two problems meeting this condition. The first, being that there were few psychology departments in 1890. Secondly, getting admitted to these places that did offer the program was highly unlikely since she was a woman. Her first consideration was to study abroad. An instructor at Smith told her that her best chance was to try obtaining private instruction in psychology and philosophy at any of the German universities outside of Zurich (6). However, another instructor told her that would be a good idea if ladies had been allowed the same privileges as men (6). Calkins formally dismissed going to Germany when she received a letter from a woman student attending the University of Gottingen which stated, I wish I might encourage you; but past experience has proved to me the utter uselessness of trying to enlighten the authorities, at least, in our generation. Once Calkins started looking at the United States, she discovered that the University of Michigan, where she would be studying under John Dewey, and Yale, where she would be studying under G.T. Ladd, were promising. However, she received a letter from another woman student that dissuaded her. The letter stated, Personally, I should be immensely glad if you would come. We might be able to get some delightful work together...By the way Prof. Ladd thinks you ought to have some lady with you at the lectures. If there were only one or two other girls who would come to join us, we could get a tremendous amount...(4). She decided against both universities, most likely because they were further away from home that she would like and they did not have a psychological laboratory. However, one of the few universities that did have a

Analysis on Propaganda Posters of the United States of America Essays

Analysis on Propaganda Posters of the United States of America Essays Analysis on Propaganda Posters of the United States of America Essay Analysis on Propaganda Posters of the United States of America Essay Historians claimed that the imperialism, nationalism and alliances of countries were among the primary causes of the World War I (otherwise known as The Great World War, The First World War or simply WW1). Although its causes were diverse, it was foremost ignited by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria-Hungarian throne, and his wife on June 28, 1914 at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. The war was fought from 1914 to 1918 between the Allied Powers (France, the British Empire, Italy and the United States of America) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire). Joining the First World War incited much disagreement among the constituents of participating countries. Oneness of the people’s minds to join a war was impossible to achieve. Aaron Delwiche wrote in his article, Of Fraud and Force Fast Woven: Domestic Propaganda During the First World War at www. propagandacritic. com website, â€Å"the absence of public unity was a primary concern when America entered the war on April 6, 1917†. Thus, gaining public approval was one of the primary agenda in the planning tables of participating countries in order to get public support for their wartime efforts. And what was found to be a valuable tool is the use of propaganda posters. This paper seeks to analyze and understand the use of propaganda posters particularly that of the United States and Germany. Propaganda Posters of the Allied Powers The Greatest Mother In The World By Alonzo Earl Foringer, USA (Source: royalalbertamuseum. ca/vexhibit/warpost/english/post22. htm) This poster was one of the famous Red Cross posters during the war. It is symbolic and reminiscent of Michaelagelo’s renaissance sculpture - Pieta (Mary holding the dead Christ in her arms) as it featured a Red Cross nurse holding an injured soldier. The poster which is both visual and verbal in context intends to recruit volunteers in the Red Cross during the war. First Call By James Montgomery Flagg, USA (Source: library. georgetown. edu/dept/speccoll/amposter. htm) This is another version of Flagg’s famous â€Å"I Want You† poster. It shows Uncle Sam with his finger pointed at the poster’s viewer, stating ardently â€Å"I Need You in the Navy this Minute! Our Country will always be proudest of those who answered the FIRST CALLâ€Å". The illustrator of this poster transformed Uncle Sam’s characterization as an imposing and responsible being from what is commonly perceived as an adoring and flaccid old man. The poster was obviously aims to recruit men for enlistment in the US Navy. Propaganda Posters of the Central Powers Poster No. 2 By von Schauroth, Germany (Source: firstworldwar.com/posters/germany. htm) The poster showed three soldiers vigilantly positioned in a trench of a battlefield. In this poster, German propagandist attempts to get the nation’s support and sympathy by providing a picture of a real-life situation of the German soldiers in the war fronts. German texts translate: Offering for the Army and Navy (Lower texts, To Donate Money: Theaterplace 14, Office 5). Unlike the United States of America’s strategy of seeking war funds from the public through subscription of liberty bonds, Germany did it as a way of ‘donation’.

An Analytical Biography of The Catcher in the Rye Essay Example for Free

An Analytical Biography of The Catcher in the Rye Essay Critic Jonathan Baumbach explores the significance of innocence in J.D Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye. He claims that the novel is not only about innocence, but actively for innocence-as if retaining one’s childness were an existing possibility. Not only that, but he states that Holden wishes to be a saint: the protector and savior of innocence by preventing them from falling into the cruel adult world of corruption and fickleness. Although he also wants someone to prevent his own fall since he is in fact still a child himself. Baumbach states that this is Holden’s paradox, saying that he must shed his own innocence to protect innocence. These statements are what send Holden off into the three day soul-searching quest that dooms Holden to sinking into insanity in our novel. The critic opens with a rather descriptive insight about how others view and critique Salinger’s first and only novel, as well as pointing some of the flaws that Catcher has: â€Å"The novel is sentimental; it loads the deck for Holden and against the adult world, the small but corrupt group that Holden encounters is not representative enough to permit Salinger his inclusive judgments about the species.† Baumbach claims that Holden does not have enough information to comment on the phoniness of humanity as a whole based on his observations of only a select few. As the critic investigates further, he makes a few interesting points. Some of which regard Mr. Antolini: Holden’s former English teacher. Baumbach claims that Antolini’s kindness to Holden is triggered by a homosexual interest that he has in the protagonist. Pointing  out the flaws in his teachers marriage, as well as ambiguous actions that he had done while with Caulfield. Based on Baumbach’s misguided interpretation the reader could be lead to think that of Mr. Antolini’s gesture as one of a perverted old man rather than as one of concerned mentor. Additionally, the critic moves on to discuss Holden’s concern of where the ducks go during the winter. He claims that what Holden really wants to know is whether there is a benevolent authority that takes care of the ducks; for if there is one for the ducks, there is must be one for people as well. Next, Baumbach switches focus to Holden’s prayer to Allie, which takes place before he goes to visit his family’s apartment. The critic postulates that Holden’s prayer to Allie is not so much an act of anguish as an act of love. However, if one closely examines the scene in the novel, the reader will realize that Holden’s prayer is actually the act of one wallowing in self-pity, of one that has truly hit rock bottom. After examining Jonathan Baumbach’s critique I can gather that he is a wonderful writer, he uses a colorful vocabulary and his sentences are perfectly structured. Although a line should be drawn when using more complex vocabulary; for while reading the critique the reader will likely find themselves having to look up several words to understand the points the critic is trying get across. Not only that, but the critic makes several assumptions based on very little information or goes out on a limb to make a point. Moreover, Baumbach’s points regarding Mr. Antolini’s homosexual nature, the significance of the Central Park ducks, as well as Holden’s prayer to Allie are not entirely concrete, and leave themselves open for dispute. When a reader goes through a book more than once, they find things they never caught while reading it through the first time. One would realize that Holden views Mr. Antolini as a father figure and a role model and comes to him looking for all the answers to the questions no one has figured out yet. For example, during the story when Holden arrives at Mr. Antolini’s apartment, He knows that Holden is spiraling downward and is basically aiming to fall into that insanity he has been drifting towards throughout  the novel, he warns him of this and eventually the two head to sleep. Now the controversial action that causes some of the audience to believe that Mr. Antolini is sexually interested in Caulfied, is that he awoke to find him stroking his hair. Holden misunderstood and made such a rash decision to put everyone into that Phony corrupt persona that he believes humanity is composed of, and storms off out of his home. If Holden was thinking more clearly he would’ve probably been able to handle the situation more responsibly, realizing that Antolini was only stroking his hair in more of a concerned fatherly way. The reader can tell by the way Holden refers to Mr. Antolini they have a strong relationship and he views him as a surrogate father, and not some perverted old man that Baumbach has painted him out to be. Additionally, As far as the Central Park ducks are concerned†¦Holden’s obsessive curiosity about what happens to the ducks during the winter shows the more child-like side to his character. Although Baumbach believes that Holden is searching for a higher power, instead helps him relate to that child innocence he is so fond of. It gives him the hope that change isn’t always permanent. It also helps the reader compare Holden’s perfect world in which time stands still (Like in the Museum of Natural History), to the real world which is constantly changing. Proving that he isn’t searching for some sort of â€Å"higher power† in the ducks, but it was a way to keep in touch with his innocence of his childhood. Lastly, when Holden hits rock bottom in the novel he says a prayer to Allie, in which Baumbach claims that it is an act of love and anguish. Although, this isn’t entirely true. Holden is actually wallowing in his own self-pity, how could he pray to Allie for help when while Allie was alive he wouldn’t even allow him to go on his bike with him and a friend? Sure, he feels regret for it now that he is dead and no longer with him, but it happened yet again when Phoebe wanted to run away with him and Caulfied turned her down the same as he had done with Allie. Proving that after hitting rock bottom Holden is desperate enough to pray although he doesn’t actually believe in God, but is hoping that there is one to not only save him but the soul of his deceased brother as well. In conclusion, Baumbach as a critic did write a well-written review of J.D Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye although it was a bit difficult to understand at times, he made a clear point and backed up his point with facts from the novel. He had colorful vocabulary and his critique flowed well together. Although the critique was a bit on the longer side I did enjoy reading it. The Catcher in the Rye which is believed to be J.D Salinger’s most famous work, had been an everlasting favorite of teens and tweens of the literary scene. This novel known for its stylized prose and focus on themes of angst, alienation, and rebellion has received wide acclaim for its extraordinary sense of originality. This novel will endure as a lifetime favorite of adolescence everywhere because it has life and is probably the most original piece of its time. An Analytical Biography of The Catcher in the Rye. (2016, Oct 18). We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you

Why is the notion of identity so important for the Constructivist Essay

Why is the notion of identity so important for the Constructivist approach - Essay Example Constructivist approach maintains central place in the disciplines including teaching and education, sociology and economics, and philosophy and psychology. However, it has obtained imperative significance in history, international relations and political science too due to its validity and vastness in respect of defining and encompassing the developments being observed at national and international scales by depicting the motifs and intentions behind the entire scenario of rabidly developing world at large. First articulated by the contemporary era American political scientist and theorist Nicholas Greenwood Onuf, the Constructivist approach submits to state that human actions appear to be the most dynamic factors of all progresses being observed in all parts of the world without discrimination. Consequently, it is human actions that give birth to social and political changes in accordance with the events taking place at international arena. These events and incidents appear to be r eliant upon one another in a sense that one event may give way to the others making a chain of developments subsequently (Onuf, 1989, p.49). For instance, it was the strict German political scheme against the vanquished France in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, which had given a go to the establishment of several international alliances including the Dreikaiserabund (or Three Emperors League), Triple Entete, Triple Alliance and others from 1875 to 1912. Similarly, the Treaty of Versailles (1919) drafted by the then British and French prime ministers i.e. Lloyd George and Clemenceau respectively in the aftermath of WWI, certainly contained the seeds and elements of another horrible war for the future years to come (Lowe, 1996, p.238). Moreover, the active participation of America in the Russ-Afghan conflict (1979-89) not only led the circumstances towards the disintegration of Russia, but also

Multi-Fibre Agreement Impact on the European Economy Essay

Multi-Fibre Agreement Impact on the European Economy - Essay Example There was an agreement among the EU states in the year 1995 to phase out the MFA over a period of ten years. Accordingly the MFA was abolished at the end of the year 2004. The removal of the protectionist measure in the form of MFA has resulted in economic advantages to certain Western European Countries. However certain other European countries like Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Greece have raised serious complaints against the removal of the quantitative restrictions on the plea that such action had largely affected their domestic textile and clothing industry and the workers in the industry. With this background this paper presents a critical assessment of the potential benefits and problems to which European Union is subjected to due to the abolition of MFA. Before the impact of the abolition of the MFA on the European Union can be discussed it is important a background of the causes and circumstances under which MFA was entered and the immediate effect of the abolition thereof. (Jean-Pierre Lehmann) The emergence of China as an economic power had influenced all the other countries of the world to make economic adjustments to grow at the same pace as Chinese economy developed. In the light of these changes in the world economy, the Western European countries had embarked upon an association for peace and prosperity in the form of European Union. The economic and political success of the European Union had made the Eastern European countries to request for accession to the EU. All the European countries and even China opted for accession to World Trade Organization in the wake of economic globalization. (Jean-Pierre Lehmann) The formation of the EU and accession to the WTO had resulted in some over-regulation and un-dynamic inbuilt rigid aspects in some of the European economies especially for the protection of uncompetitive sectors. This had also restricted the provision of the conducive conditions for any creative destruction or innovation. Under these circumstances countries like the Netherlands, Britain, Ireland, Latvia and the Scandinavian countries have reformed their economic structures and adjusted themselves to the changing circumstances. However there are other larger economies like Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and Poland had become less successful due to their industrial sluggishness. One of the anomalies of the international trading system resulted out of such un-dynamic environment basically to protect the domestic industry was to place the textiles and garment out of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) rules in the Multi-Fibre Agreement (MFA) The agreement was entered into with the intense pressure from the governments of the developed countries since there was a fear in the import-competing firms in such nations that the rise in imports from the cost-competitive developing countries would eventually destroy the viability of their domestic textile and clothing industry.( (Grimwade, 1996) "This was a defence measure initially taken in response to

Sublayers of the Data Link Layer Essay Example for Free

Sublayers of the Data Link Layer Essay

Evening of Bluegrass :: essays research papers

An Evening with the Dickel Brothers It was 9:30 on a chilly Thursday night when our little trio finally found a parking space in the Richmond District. Already drunk, we wove quickly through the neighborhoods by foot. Finally we arrived at the Last Day Saloon, uneasy that we had not purchased tickets in advance for what was sure to be one of the highlights of this years San Francisco Blue Grass and Old Time Festival – the fabulous Dickel Brothers. Our fears of a sellout were quickly allayed, as was the sense of unease that having four quarts of Irish whiskey strapped to ones person tends to instill. We were home free, for now, anyway. After purchasing our tickets, we proceeded upstairs to catch the opening act, which, to our delight, turned out to be five perfectly agreeable old geezers calling themselves the Roadoilers. Their sound was pure old-school bluegrass, heavy on melody, light on lyrics. Their artful rendering of the Bill Monroe standard Uncle Penn, made for a memorable encore. Next up, we were subjecte d to the shrill vocal styling of The Stairwell Sisters. Don’t get the wrong idea, I am certain that the particular brand of old-time mountain music that the sisters are peddling is faithfully rendered. The problem for me was simply that the clog-happy cutsieness of their presentation was enough to make even the most dyed in the wool harmony junkie run gasping for the nearest fire exit. And that is exactly what we did.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We figured the most sensible course of action was to hole up in the alleyway outside the club and wait for the fervent toe tapping to subside. I had barely finished my first cigarette when a lanky figure dressed something akin to Tom Joad on his way to church approached our little assemblage. I recognized him at once as Stephen Dickel, banjo player of the headlining band. â€Å"Anyone know where a fellah can get a bottle of whiskey in this neighborhood?†, he asked plaintively. Jill shrugged, explaining that we were from the East Bay, and thus, had little idea where he might try. Jill, apparently sensing the desperation in his face, thrust a small flask of Bushmills into his hand. After a great deep swallow, he proceeded to explain his sad situation. â€Å"This goddamn hippy club issued only two drink tickets to each of us. How, for the love of Mary, do they expect us to play in this condition?

Feminism in India

Feminism in India  is a set of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for Indian women.It is the pursuit of  women's rights  within the society of  India. Like their feminist counterparts all over the world,  feminists  in India seek gender equality: the right to work for equal wages, the right to equal access to health and education, and equal political rights. [1]  Indian feminists also have fought against culture-specific issues within India's  patriarchal  society, such as  inheritance laws  and the practice of widow immolation known as  Sati.The history of feminism in India can be divided into three phases: the first phase, beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, initiated when male European colonists began to speak out against the social evils of Sati;[2]  the second phase, from 1915 to Indian independence, when Gandhi incorporated women's movements into the  Quit India movement  and independent women's organizations began to emerge;[3]  and finally, the third phase, post-independence, which has focused on fair treatment of women in the work force and right to political parity. 3] Despite the progress made by Indian feminist movements, women living in modern India still face many issues of discrimination. India's patriarchal culture has made the process of gaining land-ownership rights and access to education challenging. [4]  In the past two decades, there has also emerged a disturbing trend of  sex-selective abortion. [5]  To Indian feminists, these are seen as injustices worth struggling against. [6] As in the  West, there has been some criticism of feminist movements in India.They have especially been criticized for focusing too much on women already privileged, and neglecting the needs and representation of poorer or lower  caste  women. This has led to the creation of caste-specific feminist organizations and movements. [7] Contents  Ã‚  [hide]   * 1  Defining feminism in the Indian context * 2  History * 2. 1  First phase: 1850–1915 * 2. 2  Second Phase: 1915–1947 * 2. 3  Feminism: Post-1947 * 3  Issues * 3. 1  Birth ratio * 3. 2  Marriage * 4  Theology * 4. 1  Hindu feminism * 4.   Islamic feminism * 5  Impact * 5. 1  Employment * 5. 2  Globalization * 5. 3  Education * 5. 4  Modernization * 6  Notable Indian feminists * 7  See also * 8  References * 9  Further reading * 10  External links| ————————————————- [edit]Defining feminism in the Indian context Tribal widow and single women protesting in  Jawhar,  Maharashtra Women's role in Pre-colonial social structures reveals that feminism was theorized differently in India than in the West. 8]  In India, women’s issues first began to be addressed when the state commi ssioned a report on the status of women to a group of feminist researchers and activists. The report recognized the fact that in India, women were oppressed under a system of structural hierarchies and injustices. During this period, Indian feminists were influenced by the Western debates being conducted about violence against women. However, due to the difference in the historical and social culture of India, the debate in favor of Indian women had to be conducted creatively and certain Western ideas had to be rejected. 9]  Women’s issues began to gain an international prominence when the decade of 1975-1985 was declared the  United Nations Decade for Women. [2] Historical circumstances and values in India have caused feminists to develop a  feminism  that differs from Western feminism. For example, the idea of women as â€Å"powerful† is accommodated into patriarchal culture through religion,[10]  which has retained visibility in all sections of society. Th is has provided women with traditional â€Å"cultural spaces. Furthermore, in the West the notion of â€Å"self† rests in competitive  individualism  where people are described as â€Å"born free yet everywhere in chains. † In India the individual is usually considered to be just one part of the larger social  collective. Survival of the individual is dependent upon  cooperation, and  self-denial  for the greater good is valued. [10] Indian women negotiate survival through an array of oppressive patriarchal family structures: age, ordinal status, relationship to men through family of origin, marriage and procreation as well as patriarchal attributes.Examples of patriarchal attributes include:  dowry, siring sons etc. ,  kinship,  caste, community, village, market and the  state. It should however be noted that several communities in India, such as the  Nairs  of Kerala,  Shettys  of Mangalore, certain  Maratha  clans, and  Bengali   families exhibit matriarchal tendencies. In these communities, the head of the family is the oldest woman rather than the oldest man. Sikh  culture is also regarded as relatively  gender-neutral. 10][11] The heterogeneity of the Indian experience reveals that there are multiple patriarchies, contributing to the existence of multiple feminisms. Hence, feminism in India is not a singular theoretical orientation; it has changed over time in relation to historical and cultural realities, levels of consciousness, perceptions and actions of individual women, and women as a group. The widely used definition is â€Å"An awareness of women’s oppression and exploitation in society, at work and within the family, and conscious action by women and men to change this situation. [11]  Acknowledgingsexism  in daily life and attempting to challenge and eliminate it through  deconstructing  mutually exclusive notions of  femininity  and  masculinity  as  biologically de termined  categories opens the way towards an equitable society for both men and women. [11] The male and female dichotomy of polar opposites with the former oppressing the latter at all times is refuted in the Indian context because it was men who initiated  social reform movementsagainst various  social evils. Patriarchy is just one of the hierarchies. Relational hierarchies between women within the same family are more adverse.Here women are pitted against one another. Not all women are powerless at all times. [12] There have been intense debates within the Indian women's movements about the relationship between Western and Indian feminisms. Many Indian feminists simultaneously claim a specific â€Å"Indian† sensitivity as well as an international feminist solidarity with groups and individuals worldwide. [9][13]  The rise of liberal feminism in the West in the 1970s focused deeply on demands for equal opportunities in education and employment, as well as ending vi olence against women.To a large extent, the emerging feminist movement in India was influenced by Western ideals. These called for education and equal rights, but also adapted their appeals to local issues and concerns, such as dowry-related violence against women,  Sati, sex selective abortion and custodial rape. Some Indian feminists have suggested that these issues are not specifically â€Å"Indian† in nature but rather a reflection of a wider trend of patriarchal oppression of women. [9] ————————————————- [edit]History Kamini Roy  (poet and suffragette) became the first woman Honors Graduate in India in 1886.Unlike the Western feminist movement, India’s movement was initiated by men, and later joined by women. The efforts of these men included abolishing sati, which was a widow's death by burning on her husband's funeral pyre,[2][14]  the custom of child marriage, abolishing the disfiguring of widows, banning the marriage of upper caste  Hindu  widows, promoting women’s education, obtaining legal rights for women to own property, and requiring the law to acknowledge women’s status by granting them basic rights in matters such as adoption. 15] The 19th century was the period that saw a majority of women's issues come under the spotlight and reforms began to be made. Much of the early reforms for Indian women were conducted by men. However, by the late 19th century they were joined in their efforts by their wives, sisters, daughters, protegees and other individuals directly affected by campaigns such as those carried out for women's education. By the late 20th century, women gained greater autonomy through the formation of independent women's own organizations.By the late thirties and forties a new narrative began to be constructed regarding â€Å"women's activism†. This was newly researched and expanded with the vision to create ‘logical' and organic links between feminism and Marxism, as well as with anti-communalism and anti-casteism, etc. The Constitution of India did guarantee ‘equality between the sexes,' which created a relative lull in women's movements until the 1970s. [3] During the formative years of women's rights movements, the difference between the sexes was more or less taken for granted in that their roles, functions, aims and desires were different.As a result, they were not only to be reared differently but treated differently also. Over the course of time, this difference itself became a major reason for initiating women's movements. Early 19th century reformers argued that the difference between men and women was no reason for the subjection of women in society. However, later reformers were of the opinion that indeed it was this particular difference that subjugated women to their roles in society, for example, as mothers. Therefore, there was a ne ed for the proper care of women's rights.With the formation of women's organizations and their own participation in campaigns, their roles as mothers was again stressed but in a different light: this time the argument was for women's rights to speech, education and emancipation. However, the image of women with the mother as a symbol underwent changes over time – from an emphasis on family to the creation of an archetypal mother figure, evoking deep, often  atavistic  images. [3] [edit]First phase: 1850–1915 The colonial venture into  modernity  brought concepts of  democracy,  equality  and individual  rights.The rise of the concept of  nationalism  and introspection of discriminatory practices brought about social reform movements related to caste and gender relations. This first phase of feminism in India was initiated by men to uproot the  social evils  of  sati  (widow immolation),[16]  to allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marri age, and to reduce illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through legal intervention. In addition to this, some upper caste Hindu women rejected constraints they faced under Brahminical traditions. 3]  However, efforts for improving the status of women in Indian society were somewhat thwarted by the late nineteenth century, as nationalist movements emerged in India. These movements resisted ‘colonial interventions in gender relations’ particularly in the areas of family relations. In the mid to late nineteenth century, there was a national form of resistance to any colonial efforts made to ‘modernize’ the Hindu family. This included the Age of Consent controversy that erupted after the government tried to raise the age of marriage for women. 2][17] [edit]Second Phase: 1915–1947 Women's procession during Quit India Movement in 1942 During this period the struggle against colonial rule intensified. Nationa lism became the pre-eminent cause. Claiming Indian superiority became the tool of cultural revivalism resulting in an essentializing model of Indian womanhood similar to that of  Victorian  womanhood: special yet separated from public space. Gandhi  legitimized and expanded Indian women’s public activities by initiating them into the non-violent  civil disobedience  movement against theBritish Raj.He exalted their feminine roles of caring, self-abnegation, sacrifice and tolerance; and carved a niche for those in the public arena. Women-only organizations like  All India Women's Conference  (AIWC) and the  National Federation of Indian Women  (NFIW) emerged. Women were grappling with issues relating to the scope of women’s political participation,  women’s franchise, communal awards, and leadership roles in  political parties. [3] The 1920s was a new era for Indian women and is defined as ‘feminism’ that was responsible for the creation of localized women’s associations.These associations emphasized women’s education issues, developed livelihood strategies for working class women, and also organized national level women’s associations such as the All India Women’s Conference. AIWC was closely affiliated with the Indian National Congress. Under the leadership of  Mahatma Gandhi, it worked within the nationalist and anti-colonialist freedom movements. This made the mass mobilization of women an integral part of Indian nationalism. Women therefore were a very important part of various nationalist and anti-colonial efforts, including the civil disobedience movements in the 1970s. 3] After independence, the All India Women’s Conference continued to operate and in 1954 the Indian Communist Party formed its own women’s wing known as the National Federation of Indian Women. However, feminist agendas and movements became less active right after India’s 1947 indepen dence, as the nationalist agendas on nation building took precedence over feminist issues. [18] Women’s participation in the struggle for freedom developed their critical consciousness about their role and rights in  independent India. This resulted in the introduction of the franchise and civic rights of women in the Indian constitution.There was provision for women’s upliftment through  affirmative action, maternal health and child care provision (creches), equal pay for equal work etc. The state adopted a patronizing role towards women. For example, India’s constitution states that women are a â€Å"weaker section† of the population, and therefore need assistance to function as equals. [15]  Thus women in India did not have to struggle for basic rights as did women in the West. The utopia ended soon when the social and cultural ideologies and structures failed to honor the newly acquired concepts of fundamental rights and democracy. 3] [edit]Femi nism: Post-1947 Post independence feminists began to redefine the extent to which women were allowed to engage in the workforce. Prior to independence, most feminists accepted the sexual divide within the labor force. However, feminists in the 1970s challenged the inequalities that had been established and fought to reverse them. These inequalities included unequal wages for women, relegation of women to ‘unskilled' spheres of work, and restricting women as a reserve army for labor.In other words, the feminists' aim was to abolish the free service of women who were essentially being used as cheap capital. [3]  Feminist class-consciousness also came into focus in the 1970s, with feminists recognizing the inequalities not just between men and women but also within power structures such as caste, tribe, language, religion, region, class etc. This also posed as a challenge for feminists while shaping their overreaching campaigns as there had to be a focus within efforts to ensur e that fulfilling the demands of one group would not create further inequalities for another.Now, in the early twenty-first century, the focus of the Indian feminist movement has gone beyond treating women as useful members of society and a right to parity, but also having the power to decide the course of their personal lives and the right of self-determination. [3] ————————————————- [edit]Issues Despite â€Å"on-paper† advancements, many problems still remain which inhibit women from fully taking advantage of new rights and opportunities in India. There are many traditions and customs that have been an important part of Indian culture for hundreds of years.Religious laws and expectations, or â€Å"personal laws† enumerated by each specific religion, often conflict with the Indian Constitution, eliminating rights and powers women should legally have. Despite these crossovers in legality, the Indian government does not interfere with religion and the personal laws they hold. [19]  Religions, like Hinduism, call for women to be faithful servants to God and their husbands. They have a term called  pativrata  that describes a wife who has accepted service and devotion to her husband and her family as her ultimate religion and duty.Indian society is largely composed of hierarchical systems within families and communities. These  hierarchies  can be broken down into age, sex, ordinal position, kinship relationships (within families), and caste, lineage, wealth, occupations, and relationship to ruling power (within the community). When hierarchies emerge within the family based on social convention and economic need, girls in poorer families suffer twice the impact of vulnerability and stability. From birth, girls are automatically entitled to less; from playtime, to food, to education, girls can expect to always be entitled to less than their brothers.Girls also have less access to their family’s income and assets, which is exacerbated among poor, rural Indian families. From the start, it is understood that females will be burdened with strenuous work and exhausting responsibilities for the rest of their lives, always with little to no compensation or recognition. [20] India is also a  patriarchal  society, which, by definition, describes cultures in which males as fathers or husbands are assumed to be in charge and the official heads of households.A  patrilinealsystem governs the society, where descent and inheritance are traced through the male line and men are generally in control of the distribution of family resources. [12] These traditions and ways of Indian life have been in effect for so long that this type of lifestyle is what women have become accustomed to and expect. Indian women often do not take full advantage of their constitutional rights because they are not properly aware or inf ormed of them. Women also tend to have poor utilization of voting rights because they possess low levels of political awareness and sense of political efficacy.Women are not often encouraged to become informed about issues. Due to this, political parties do not invest much time in female candidates because there is a perception that they are a â€Å"wasted investment. â€Å"[15] The female-to-male ratio in India is 933 to 1000, showing that there are numerically fewer women in the country than men. This is due to several factors, including  infanticides, most commonly among female infants, and the poor care of female infants and childbearing women. Although outlawed, infanticides are still highly popular in rural India, and are continuing to become even more prominent.This is due to the fact, most especially in rural areas, that families cannot afford female children because of the  dowry  they must pay when their daughter gets married. Like infanticide, the payment of dowry is also  illegal, but is still a frequent and prevalent occurrence in rural India. [21]  Women are considered to be â€Å"worthless† by their husbands if they are not â€Å"able† to produce a male child, and can often face much abuse if this is the case. [22] [edit]Birth ratio Between the years of 1991 to 2001, the female-male ratio of the population of India fell from 94. 5 girls per 100 boys to 92. girls per 100 boys. [5]  Some parts of the country, such as  Kerala, did not experience such a decline, but in the richer Indian states of  Punjab,  Haryana,  Gujarat, and  Maharashtra, the female-male ratio fell very sharply (the female-male ratios in these states were between 79. 3 and 87. 8). [5]  This is evidence of natality inequality, and an indication that  sex-selective abortion  has become more pervasive. The Indian parliament has banned the use of sex determination techniques for fetuses due to this, but enforcement of this law has been lar gely ignored. [23] [edit]MarriageMost of the average Indian woman's life is spent in marriage; many women are still married before the legal age of 18, and the incidence of non-marriage is low in India. Childbearing and raising children are the priorities of early adulthood for Indian women. Thus, if they enter the workforce at all, it is far later than Indian men. Urban Indian men reach the peak of their labor force participation between the ages of 25 and 29, while urban Indian women do so between the ages of 40 and 44. [4]  Because of this, women have less time for the acquisition of skills and fewer opportunities for job improvements.There is a poor representation of women in the Indian workforce. Females have a ten percent higher drop-out rate than males from middle and primary schools, as well as lower levels of literacy than men. Since unemployment is also high in India, it is easy for employers to manipulate the law, especially when it comes to women, because it is part of Indian culture for women not to argue with men. Additionally, labor unions are insensitive to women’s needs. Women also have to settle for jobs that comply with their obligations as wives, mothers, and homemakers. [4][21] ————————————————- edit]Theology [edit]Hindu feminism In the  Hindu  religion, there has been partial success in terms of gender equality reform laws and family law. While this is a major advancement relative to other religions in India, it is still not a complete triumph in terms of feminism and relieving oppression. [19]  Gandhi  came up with the term  stree shakti  (women power) for the concept of womanhood. In the Hindu religion, Gods are not exclusively male. Hinduism sheds a positive light on femininity; females are considered to compliment and complete their male counterparts.It is important to note that the deities of both knowl edge and wealth are female. [15] There has been some criticism from  Dalit  groups that Indian feminism tends to represent â€Å"upper caste† and upper class Hindu women, while ignoring and marginalizing the interests of Dalit women. Debates on caste and gender oppression have been furthered by  Other Backward Class  (OBC) members of different political parties, arguing in state assemblies that â€Å"lower caste† women's interests are best represented by women from these castes. 7]  Working towards this end, women within Dalit castes have formed organizations such as the All India Dalit Women's Forum and the National Federation of Dalit Women and Dalit Solidarity, which focus on the gendered implications of caste based violence and oppression, such as the ways in which Dalit women suffer from urban poverty and displacement. [7] [edit]Islamic feminism The Hindu and Muslim communities in India were treated differently by the government in that separate types of concessions were made for each community in order to accommodate their separate religious laws and regulations.The case of  Shah Bano  begun in 1985 was one such example of  Rajiv Gandhi  attempting to make â€Å"concessions† for the Muslim community to in turn secure support for the Congress. Shah Bano, a 73-year-old Muslim woman, was divorced by her husband after forty-three years of marriage. According to the Sharia or Muslim Law, her husband was not required to pay her alimony. Shah Bano challenged this decision in the Supreme Court, which ultimately ruled in her favor and ordered her husband to pay her a monthly maintenance allowance.This caused chaos amongst the Muslim clerics who denounced the judgement and suggested that their religion, Islam was under attack in the country. In a fear of losing overall Muslim support, Rajiv succumbed to the pressures of the Muslim community and his own party and backed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Bill t hat overruled the Supreme Court's decision. This caused an outcry from Hindu nationalists who found the appeasement of minorities by the Congress for political purposes wrong and opportunistic. 24] Feminism was challenged by various minority groups for not entirely addressing the needs of minority populations. It was suggested that ‘mainstream' feminism was upper caste and Hindu in its orientation and did not address the concerns of minority women. This led to the formation of the Awaaz-e-Niswaan (The Voice of Women) in 1987 in Mumbai in largely Muslim part of the city. The Muslim community has been subjected to personal laws that often were considered harmful to the rights of Muslim women. [25] ————————————————- [edit]ImpactWestern-educated Indians introduced  equality  in the early nineteenth century. However, the term did not gain meaning or become an operatio nal principle in Indian life until the country gained independence in 1947 and adopted a democratic government. [15]  The  Indian Constitution  then granted equality, freedom from discrimination based on gender or religion, and guaranteed religious freedoms. [19]  Also, seven  five-year plans  were developed to provide health, education, employment, and welfare to women. The sixth five-year plan even declared women â€Å"partners in development. [15] [edit]Employment In general in the uneducated and rural section of the Indian society, which forms a major percentage of the total population, women are seen as economic burdens. Their contributions to productivity are mostly invisible as their familial and domestic contributions are unfairly overlooked. Indian women were contributing nearly 36 percent of total employment in agriculture and related activities, nearly 19 percent in the service sector, and nearly 12. 5 in the industry sector as of the year 2000.The unfortunat e reality is that the high illiteracy rate among women confines them to lower paying, unskilled jobs with less job security than men. Even in agricultural jobs where the work of men and women are highly similar, women are still more likely to be paid less for the same amount and type of work as men. [26]  However in the urban section of Indian society, women are empowered with laws such as IPC 498a which are heavily biased against the men in the society. Educated women are sometimes accused of using such laws to unleash legal terrorism on husbands by disgruntled wives. 24] [edit]Globalization Feminists are also concerned about the impact of globalization on women in India. Some feminists argue that globalization has led to economic changes that have raised more social and economical challenges for women, particularly for working class and lower caste women. Multinational companies in India have been seen to exploit the labor of ‘young, underpaid and disadvantaged womenâ€⠄¢ in free trade zones and sweat shops, and use â€Å"Young lower middle class, educated women,† in call centers.These women have few effective labor rights, or rights to collective action. [27][28] In addition to this, multinational corporations are seen to advertise a homogenous image of ideal women across the country is argued to cause an increase in the commodification of women’s bodies. This is also manifested in the form of nationalist pride exhibited through Indian women winning international beauty pageants. According to some feminists, such developments have offered women greater sexual autonomy and more control over their bodies.However, many other feminists feel that such commodification of female bodies has only served the purpose of feeding to male fantasies. [27] [edit]Education Girls in Kalleda Rural School,  Andhra Pradesh. Some of the main reasons that girls are less likely to reach optimal levels of education include the fact that girls are needed t o assist their mothers at home, have been raised to believe that a life of domestic work is their destined occupation, have illiterate mothers who cannot educate their children, have an economic dependency on men, and are sometimes subject to child-marriage. 26] In 1986, the  National Policy on Education  (NPE) was created in India, and the government launched the program called  Mahila Samakhya, whose focus was on the empowerment of women. The program’s goal is to create a learning environment for women to realize their potential, learn to demand information and find the knowledge to take charge of their own lives. In certain areas of India, progress is being made and an increase in the enrollment of girls in schools and as teachers has begun to increase.By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India. [29]  Efforts are still being made to improve the level of education that females receive to match that of male students. [26] [edit]Modernization Modern influences are affecting the younger generations in parts of India, where girls are beginning to forgo the more traditional ways of Indian life and break gender stereotypes.In more flourishing parts of the country, the idea of â€Å"dating,† or more specifically  openly  dating, has come into play, and the terms â€Å"girlfriend† and â€Å"boyfriend† are being used. Some women have landed highly respectable careers, and can be seen across  Bollywood  billboards and advertisements. However, this is not the norm throughout the country; such modernizations and the women behind them face serious resistance from anti-liberalists. The country is still severely male-dominant and unwelcoming to such movements that go against sex and gender traditions in India. Hasselrlis, Kaj. â€Å"Making a Statement. †Ã‚  Herizons  23. 2 (2009): 33-35.

Summary of President Lyndon

Lyndon B. Johnson attempted to persuade his listeners to act in order to guarantee equal voting rights for all Americans by using the phrase â€Å"the American Promise. † He began his peech in a way that suggests his message would surpass the current constraint facing the nation. The current constraint, he felt, was a â€Å"turning point in man's unending search for freedom† and â€Å"equal rights. † It is part of the American Promise, which is to guarantee the freedom and equality of every man in America.Johnson suggested throughout his speech that denying equal rights to African Americans, illustrated by the violence in Selma, AL, signify a threat to the values our nation. To keep African Americans from enjoying the freedom and equality guaranteed by the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution would break our nation's promise, Johnson mentions throughout his speech. In short, the President held the dialect of democratic freedom and equality to h elp guarantee equal voting rights to African Americans.Johnson also argues that the issue confronting the county was of historic significance. He suggested that although the United States kept African Americans from enjoying the benefits of freedom and equality for many years, the nation had not broken its promise†yet; however destiny had crossed the nation's ath at this exact time, for the decision to be made, keep the promise or break it. The president stresses that such a moment came â€Å"rarely in any time. † Therefore, the nation must take hold of the opportunity.His speech helped deflate Southern resistance to equal voting rights by making racial discrimination at voting booth seem fundamentally un-American. By doing this Johnson directly put supporters of segregation on the losing side of an issue of principle. No one could argue persuasively that voter discrimination was in line with American values. Out of this peech President Johnson crafted a compelling Just ification for immediate passage of a strong federal voting rights law.His speech became the framework for public and congressional deliberations. At a time ot urgency and chaos, his speech to congress and to the nation provided focus and clarity on a very important and sensitive issue of that time. President Johnson's speech is remarkable because it made the idea of equal voting rights meaningful and compelling through shared interests, motives, and intentions in order to secure the passage of one of the most important civil rights laws for the country.

Free Essays on Full Inclusion

is full inclusion desirable? There is much debate surrounding the subject of full inclusion of students with disabilities in regular classrooms. Is full inclusion of disabled students desirable? Like most controversial topics, this is not black and white; there are advantages and disadvantages associated with it. Also, like a lot of controversial topics, many people have opinions, such as teachers, parents, students, researchers, and others.First, it is necessary to define what inclusion is. An inclusive school or classroom educates all students in the mainstream. This means that all students, including students with learning and physical disabilities, at-risk, homeless, and gifted are included in integrated, general education classes. It also means providing all students within the mainstream: 1.) appropriate educational experiences that are challenging yet geared to their capabilities and needs, and 2.) any support and assistance they or their teachers require. (Stainback, 1992) Inclusive education suggests th e restructuring of special education to permit all or most students to be integrated in mainstream classrooms through reorganization and instructional innovations. It suggests the redesign of the traditional special education service delivery model to integrate students into regular education classrooms and to promote collaboration between educators in regular and special education. Since its evolution in the late 1980s, inclusive education has increasingly challenged the legitimacy of virtually every professional and institutional practice of twentieth-century schooling. The structural implications of inclusive education are quite clear: it requires fundamental changes of the most basic structural features of schools as organizations, that is, the very ways in which the work in schools is divided and coordinated among professionals. The cultural implications turn on recognizing the historical separation between general and s... Free Essays on Full Inclusion Free Essays on Full Inclusion is full inclusion desirable? There is much debate surrounding the subject of full inclusion of students with disabilities in regular classrooms. Is full inclusion of disabled students desirable? Like most controversial topics, this is not black and white; there are advantages and disadvantages associated with it. Also, like a lot of controversial topics, many people have opinions, such as teachers, parents, students, researchers, and others.First, it is necessary to define what inclusion is. An inclusive school or classroom educates all students in the mainstream. This means that all students, including students with learning and physical disabilities, at-risk, homeless, and gifted are included in integrated, general education classes. It also means providing all students within the mainstream: 1.) appropriate educational experiences that are challenging yet geared to their capabilities and needs, and 2.) any support and assistance they or their teachers require. (Stainback, 1992) Inclusive education suggests th e restructuring of special education to permit all or most students to be integrated in mainstream classrooms through reorganization and instructional innovations. It suggests the redesign of the traditional special education service delivery model to integrate students into regular education classrooms and to promote collaboration between educators in regular and special education. Since its evolution in the late 1980s, inclusive education has increasingly challenged the legitimacy of virtually every professional and institutional practice of twentieth-century schooling. The structural implications of inclusive education are quite clear: it requires fundamental changes of the most basic structural features of schools as organizations, that is, the very ways in which the work in schools is divided and coordinated among professionals. The cultural implications turn on recognizing the historical separation between general and s...

Compare and contrast different software life- Research Paper

Compare and contrast different software life- - Research Paper Example There are several life-cycle models that have been suggested including waterfall, Agile, Iterative model, prototype model, spiral model etc., each with its different strengths and weaknesses (Thayer, 2005). Moreover, differences exist the way software is developed in theory and in practice. Considering these factors, for a software development organization to make an informed decision on the most appropriate life-cycle model for the particular, organization, the staff and the software process, it is imperative to make a comparative analysis of various life-cycle models (Schach, 2011). This paper therefore, strives to compare and contrast the features and defects of waterfall, Agile, Iterative model, prototype model, and spiral model in order to show the advantages and disadvantages of each. Waterfall Model The idea behind this model is that a subsequent phase can only be initiated upon completion of the previous phases and at the end of each phase or stage, a review is carried out to determine if the project is on course or whether to discontinue or discard the project (Munassar and Govardhan, 2010). The model follows a sequential approach that flows progressively from top to bottom passing through the five stages of the SDLC which include the requirements analysis and maintenance among others. The Waterfall model has various advantages most notably being its ease of use given its popularity among software developers. Moreover, the model is very efficient when working on small projects where requirements are very well understood. The model is also very cost-effective since more time is spent to make sure that all requirements are clearly understood at the earlier stages, which ensure that there remains no need to conduct risk analysis at later stage, which would be more expensive. On the other hand, the model has various drawbacks, the greatest being that once an phase has been initiated, it is impossible to go back to previous stages. For example, is mistakes are made at the design stage, but the situation can get very complex at the implementation level. The client does not have access to the software until it is completed and therefore any changes he might want made during the process may cause problems. Another disadvantage is that the model comes with high amounts of risk and uncertainty, inflexibility and it is generally a poor model for complex and object-oriented projects (Munassar and Govardhan, 2010). Considering these features, the Waterfall model is an appropriate life-cycle model for projects that have clear and well-understood requirements, design and technical tools and infrastructure. Spiral model In the spiral life-cycle model, a lot of emphasis is put on risk analysis and decreasing project risk by disintegrating it into smaller subdivisions. In addition, the model has a greater level of involvement of the client unlike the Waterfall model since reevaluation is carried out every time a new prototype is introduced. Errors are consequently done away with during the early stages of project development only leading to proper control over time and manpower requirement for the development process (Sharma, Sharma and Mehta, 2012). Budget and time estimates can also be made in way that is more realistic because the crucial issues are discovered during the initial

Arab Springs Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Arab Springs - Assignment Example The small unit is intending to transform itself into a proper fast food restaurant by means of innovative and resourceful strategies. Presently the point is offering few local fast food items to the general public of Cottage Grave. This business plan has been made after making a comprehensive research and evaluating a variety of issues concerning fast food restaurant industry in Minnesota in the city of Cottage Grove. The main purpose and scope of this plan is to provide particular information about the industry and to highlight the critical areas for successful launching of a new fast food restaurant in Minnesota. The data discussed in this business plan is based on some certain facts and has been collected through number of sources. A careful attempt has been made to present real time data, however, this information may change at any time due to occurrence of any changes in the target market, and thus the actual outcomes may differ from the projected results. 1. Mission Statement G eneration of revenue and profit is the main purpose of any organization and same will be for Minnesota Fast Food Restaurant. Since it’s a service provider unit, therefore, customer service is the base of its existence. Our aim is to become the first choice of the customers and make them staying with us again and again. We believe in PEARL as our core value i.e. Passion for excellence in doing everything Execute with positive energy and urgency Accountable for growth in customer satisfaction and profitability Recognize the achievement of others and have fun doing it Listen and more importantly respond to the voice of customer 2. Market Analysis MFFR will operate its business by keeping a target market of very general nature in front of it because Cottage Grove is a small area having a population of only 34,589 in 2010 census According to the census conducted in 2000, there were 9,932 households and 8,462 families living in the Cottage Grove. Our restaurant will address the you th population, between ages 18 to 44 years, as its target market because it is 41.8% of the total population. Population under 18 is almost 32.7% of the total population (Census Redistricting Data, 2010). In Cottage Grove, the per capita income for the city was $28,348 in 2009 (http://www.city-data.com/city/Cottage-Grove-Minnesota.html). The market behavior of US fast food industry is interesting and it has been observed that generally three types of orders are placed in fast food restaurant. These orders are placed with respect to nature of group and family. The figure shown as Appendix-I indicates that lunch and dinner items are having a larger share of the market as 29% of the US fast food industry consists of it. Snack items and related beverages contribute 22 and 21% respectively while hot coffees, breakfast items, and side dishes have a combine share of 28% (Menu Composition Analysis, 2010). Since fast food industry is dominated by several global companies, therefore, MFFR wil l face a strong competition in Minnesota. Presently McDonald, Domino, Yum, Papa John’